The material used for the present research is the corpus of papers published in JMCR from February through August The material was selected by automatic search and sampling using the Latin-Ukrainian Thesaurus of Clinical Terms [ 9 ]. To standardize the selection of Latin terms, we developed the structural and thematic typologies of these units.
The structural typology focuses on the major modeling patterns of Latin terminology in MCRs and comprises the following groups:. For objective reasons, these terms will not be subjected to quantitative analysis, because they virtually penetrate the entire English medical discourse. However, this group also embraces the Latin lexis, which is not that common and therefore can be studied quantitatively. Two-word phrases : The group of two-word phrases is of particular interest because these terms are much less anglicized and preserve the original features of the Latin grammatical system.
We believe that careful lexicogrammatical categorization of these terminological units will provide better understanding and deeper memorizing of them, which in turn will prevent possible spelling errors in MCR writing.
We conducted quantitative analysis of the two-word terminological phrases and present them in descending order highest to lowest frequency within each subcategory.
Hence, this group embraces the following subcategories:. Three-word phrases : The group of three-word phrases comprises the following subcategories:. A subgroup of compound English-Latin word phrases, which we refer to as the hybrid terms , containing both assimilated and nonassimilated lexical units.
Further, we organized the collected material into thematic groups and determined the frequency of their use in JMCR :. The selected MCRs were considered using the method of lexicogrammatical and stylistic analyses, with a focus largely on the structural peculiarities, narrative function, and contextual role of Latin terminology. The use of Latin terms and phrases was subjected to quantitative examination to determine their frequency. We developed the structural and thematic typologies of Latin terms and conducted quantitative analysis of these terms.
In this way, we determined the frequency of using Latin in MCRs, as well as detected the most prevalent and productive lexical units and phrases. The structural typology comprises the following groups:. We detected 17 cases of using the noun erratum meaning error for amending a published text. In this context, it is necessary to remark that pluralizing one-word Latin terms can sometimes be quite a challenge.
For instance, a common mistake occurs when deriving the plural form of the Latin word septum. This lexical unit belongs to the second declension of Latin nouns, neuter gender. Therefore, the correct plural form in Latin and in English is septa. As a result, a misspelling septae occurs. In fact, we found 66 publications in JMCR with the correct plural form of the word under consideration.
A similar error may occur with the word dorsum , which also belongs to the second declension of Latin nouns, neuter gender. Another challenging aspect of using Latin in MCRs is the subject-verb agreement in number. The group of three-word phrases is also remarkable for preserving the original features of Latin grammar.
It comprises the following subcategories:. It should be remarked that the latter construction is rather unusual for Latin; yet, such a rare expression still can be found in current medical discourse. Noteworthy is the contextual use of the expression in situ. Hence, this is one of the most productive Latin lexical units in modern medical discourse. The group of abbreviations is represented by lexical units such as i. As a next step, we organized the collected material into thematic groups and determined the frequency of their use in JMCR.
Hence, the thematic typology comprises the groups of Latin terms that signify the following:. Anatomical descriptions for example, phrases with terms such as musculus, os , levator , abductor , and so forth. Physiological conditions for example, virgo intacta , primigravida , nullipara , ante partum , postpartum , and so forth. Methods of studies and experiments for example, in vivo , in vitro , in situ , and so forth. Indications to treatment and routes of administering medications for example, mane , ter in die , quarter in die , per os , and so forth.
Pathological conditions for example, cor pulmonale , carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma , placenta previa percreta , and so forth. Academic language that maintains the coherence and cohesion of the discourse for example, inter alia , in toto , and so forth.
Table 1 demonstrates the results of our quantitative analysis and shows the correlation between the structure and thematic content of Latin terms in JMCR. The research revealed that Latin terminology is most frequently used to refer to methods of studies and experiments two-word phrases.
Next are the categories of anatomical descriptions and academic language , followed by indications for treatment units. In fact, the majority of MCRs under consideration give preference to English equivalents of names of pathological conditions for instance, acute abdomen rather than abdomen acutum as in [ 13 ].
In our opinion, Latin terminology is well-preserved in the names for methods of studies and experiments, because it is neutral favoring no particular national language , constant, and internationally accepted.
Furthermore, it is necessary to observe that this group of terms is dominated by two-word expressions, which enable the authors to render their message accurately and concisely. Among the advantages of Latin in anatomy, one should mention terminological continuity and constancy [ 5 ], which date back to early human history. In fact, the first anatomical descriptions were written by Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen and subsequently improved by Vesalius, Fabricius, and Harvey [ 22 ].
For instance, the names of muscles have not changed since their introduction by Vesalius in [ 23 ]. Moreover, it is highly important to use Latin correctly. For instance, Neumann has extensively studied these issues in anatomy [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. It is necessary to instruct students about the potential spelling errors that may occur when using Latin terminology, for example, in the subject-verb agreement in number or when pluralizing terms such as septum , dorsum , labium , and so forth.
Table 2 demonstrates the most challenging cases of using plural forms of Latin in MCRs. Latin terms in the names of indications for treatment such as PRN [ pro re nata ], t. This is due to the fact that these terms are transnational, stable, and internationally understood. Latin has a unique status as the fundamental principle of scientific style and academic language.
Mastering the basics of Latin has survived from ancient times as a continuous tradition and an effective means of capturing, reflecting, and disseminating scholarly knowledge. In fact, scientific genres such as thesis, monograph, article, report, polemic presentation, and textbook were written in Latin until as late as the 19th century. Nowadays, the use of Latin academic expressions is a strong tradition in scholarly communities.
In other words, Latin maintains the position of lingua franca among educated people , regardless of their nationality. Besides this respect for tradition, these terms enable authors to express themselves succinctly and concisely. The pathophysiology nomenclature is rooted in the ancient Greek tradition, which subsequently underwent latinization. For instance, terms such as arthritis , carcinoma , cholera , emphysema , erythema , herpes , kyphosis , nephritis , pleuritis , typhus , and many others were first described in Corpus Hippocraticum in the fifth to fourth centuries b.
In our opinion, such eponymic terms disclose the evolution of medical research and practice, provide continuity of scientific knowledge, and contribute to the formation of terminological competence of medical students [ 29 ].
Thus, Latin clinical terminology is the result of the centuries-old history of world medical development, which provides a neutral ground for medical professionals from different countries.
Moreover, Latin and latinized Greek are productive tools for coining new terms. For instance, the term appendicitis was used for the first time in in American Journal of Medical Science. Hence, the ability to build new compound words also indicates the viability of this terminological corpus. At the same time, the one-word semiassimilated terms were not calculated in this study, owing to their widespread occurrence in the medical language and strong penetration into English dictionaries.
Meanwhile, the nonassimilated multiple-word terms are of particular interest because this lexical layer preserves the grammatical features of Latin. The present study demonstrates the long-standing predominance and viability of Latin in modern MCRs. One can observe that the undeniable advantage of one-word Latin terms, as in the example of mane , is their conciseness, which is essential for MCRs as a genre [ 31 ]. Likewise, two-word Latin terms, such as in vitro , ex vitro , in vivo , ex vivo , in situ , and so forth, as well as abbreviations enable the transfer of the maximum amount of necessary information using the minimum linguistic tools.
In modern MCRs, three-word Latin terms, for example, abductor digiti minimi , levator palpebrae superioris , and so forth, are represented largely by anatomical notions. This feature results from the well-developed system of anatomical terminology that was meticulously arranged and organized by the ancient Romans. Hence, it is essential for medical professionals to be aware of correct forms of nominative plurals, genitive singular and plural, Latin adjectives, and so forth in order to avoid misspelling in medical writing.
Several studies [ 5 , 6 , 8 ] have addressed the issue of replacement of Latin by English. It is our opinion that, despite the spread of the English language, Latin firmly maintains its important and relevant position in the modern world. First, Latin is unbound in terms of territory: It possesses a unique status of a globally neutral vehicle of medical communication, and thus its use gives respect to other national languages.
It should be remembered that the official languages of the United Nations UN are the six languages used for written documents and meetings of the UN. Furthermore, knowledge of Lain etymologies promotes correct English spelling and understanding of medical terminology.
Moreover, through studying Latin, a person gains an understanding of the mechanisms and structure of any other language [ 32 ]. In addition, for representatives of Slavic nations, Latin becomes virtually a key to Western civilization because it is incorporated into most European languages.
Hence, by means of learning Latin, English medical terminology becomes transparent and understandable for the Slavs. It should be noted that most Latin and latinized Greek terms have been used for over years. As a result, the use of Latin provides the intellectual and terminological continuity of Western medicine that is rooted in ancient times. It is also necessary to bear in mind that the original version of Magna Charta Universitatum Europaeum was written in Latin to celebrate and encourage the deepest values of European university traditions.
Thus, using Latin terms promotes the conciseness of MCRs, contributes to the coherence and cohesion of narratives in MCRs, and constitutes a rich and viable academic layer of medical terminology. Thus, our present research reveals that the use of Latin fully complies with the communicative strategies of MCRs as a genre, such as conciseness, narrative style, and educational value [ 31 ]. It is also essential to identify the countries where Latin terminological units are the most common in medical writing.
Recent research [ 33 ] has been focused on the relevance of Latin in the modern curricula at universities. Smith et al. Turmezei [ 35 ] asserted that understanding anatomical etymology enhances the training process and reinforces memorization. But he neglected to tell us that a knowledge of the classic languages would greatly facilitate the mastery, memorization, and internalization of these terms. This subtle point is often lost in translation. It was once understood that studying the works of magnificent orators, educated emperors, and preeminent philosophers in their original tongues could give students of any pursuit a deeper appreciation for prose, syntax, word choice, and nuance from the Latin nubes , related to clouds, referring to their subtle changes in their own primary language.
Being a Latin derived language, this holds especially true for English. Entering medical school, I became impressed with innocuous appearing faculty who could eviscerate students for poor performance without raising their voices or using unseemly language, but by being fierce, direct, and laconic.
The importance of studying classic language then lies not in yelling at patients in Latin or Greek, but in gaining a deeper understanding of the importance of words and their arrangements as they affect outcomes. Greek physicians made many early contributions to medicine, including Galen who appropriately described tendon suturing techniques and Hippocrates of white coat ceremony infamy. Latin eventually rose to prominence as the unofficial international medical language with the decline of Greek fluency and with scholars translating Arab and Greek works into Latin.
French, German, English, Spanish in recent times. Latin has not survived without contenders for its throne throughout the years. Germany has a history of clinicians who wished to remove from medicine what they saw as an onerous burden, including professors who refused to teach in Latin and those who attempted to change the language of an internationally recognized corpus of medical anatomy terminology shortly before World War II.
Latin was once considered a prerequisite for many undergraduate and medical schools, leading to at least one doctor to be accused of incompetence for an incomplete grasp of the language. Many reasons exist for this requirement, including its former prominence as the international language of science, but also relatively immutable terms of anatomy and physiology that have persisted for thousands of years to end up in modern textbooks i.
It is difficult to argue that one can successfully learn anatomy, physiology, and many aspects of medicine without a basic working knowledge of Latin. A number of Latin terms are used in legal terminology and legal maxims. Horizontal stare decisis refers to a court adhering to its own precedent. English legal terms are full of Latin words and phrases. Several of these terms are so common, you use them today without any problem or confusion.
De jure: by right; according to law as opposed to de facto. Law is or was a learned profession and before information and education was available to everyone, the language of the learned was Latin, which is why there are still many latin terms and phrases and maxims that are still in use in the contemporary practice of law.
Prima facie is a legal claim that has sufficient evidence to proceed to trial or judgment. Lex noun law; as, lex talionis, the law of retaliation; lex terrae, the law of the land; lex fori, the law of the forum or court; lex loci, the law of the place; lex mercatoria, the law or custom of merchants. Etymology: [L. See Legal. Opposite of in a manner that is legally permissible. Begin typing your search term above and press enter to search.
Press ESC to cancel. Skip to content Home Social studies Why is Latin important in medicine? Social studies. Ben Davis September 23, Why is Latin important in medicine? Why is Latin used in law? Why do doctors use Latin?
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