While wildlife sanctuaries protect and conserve wild animals in their natural habitats. They are spread in vast areas. Wildlife sanctuary is a place where wild animals are protected and preserved.
Here poaching or capturing any animal is strictly prohibited. It mainly provides protection to the animals. Biosphere reserves are the protecting areas meant for only conservation of biodiversity i. It also helps to maintain the culture of that area. Conservation of Plants and Animals Exercise. Crop Production and Management 2. Microorganisms: Friend and Foe 3.
Synthetic Fibres and Plastic 4. Materials: Metals and Non-Metals 5. Coal and Petroleum 6. Combustion and Flame 7. Conservation of Plants and Animals 8. Cell — Structure and Functions 9. Reproduction in Animals Reaching the Age of Adolescence Force and Pressure Friction Sound Chemical Effects and Electric Current Some Natural Phenomena Light Stars and the Solar System Q4 What will happen if.
Ruminants belong to the order Cetartiodactyla, which encompasses numerous species, and only a minority has been domesticated including cattle, sheep, and goats. Although these are suited to different habitats, in intensive farming systems, domestication has led to exposure to different stressors potentially responsible of pathologies.
For centuries, cattle have been grown in a traditional manner, within small farms, mainly grazing. Furthermore, individual selection for enhanced production traits has placed an even greater metabolic demand on these animals. The microenvironment experienced by cattle in houses, on open feedlots or at pasture is determined by the microclimate. Beef cattle can tolerate and adapt to a wide range of air temperatures, and metabolic heat production increases with increasing feed intake.
Microclimate changes e. The housing system could play an important role in cattle welfare [ 7 ]. Loose housing systems allow more freedom of movement than tether systems, also offering the animals the possibility of experiencing more natural social behaviors.
The resting area is one of the most important areas, especially in a cow facility. Lying down is a basic requirement, and repeated deprivation is aversive to cows. Lying times are lower and standing times are higher when dairy cattle are forced to use hard surfaces. Particularly, in dairy cow, the poor hygiene and the materials of the bedding leads to udder problems , as manure may compromise cow comfort and increase the risk of intramammary infections. The type of flooring on which animals walk has been found to affect their welfare by impairing locomotion and increasing the occurrence of hoof disorders and lameness , which represent a major concern for the dairy industry because it negatively affects milk production.
Beef cattle kept on slatted floors show a higher incidence of abnormal standing and lying movements and also a higher incidence of injuries than animals kept on concrete floor with fully or partially straw-bedded areas. A long duration of grazing periods, associated with frequent manure removal during the housing period, is probably a key factor for limiting the occurrence of podal lesions.
As far as social interactions are concerned, mixing and regrouping of cattle increase the incidence of agonistic behaviors and have also disadvantages from a health perspective. Older and more aggressive animals may cause trauma and continuous and severe stress to lower ranking calves bullers.
Small and young animals are more prone to diseases if kept with larger and older animals. For these reasons, groups should be made up with animals of similar age, weight, and sex [ 5 ]. Moreover, overcrowding and the reduced space at the manger are one of the most critical factors negatively affecting cattle welfare by increasing competition among pen-mates, causing the buller steer syndrome, decreasing the feed intake, reducing the time spent resting, eating, and ruminating, and increasing lesions, such as trauma on bones and joints, osteoarthropathies, prepuce injury, and tail-tip necrosis.
In most intensive farming systems, the separation of the dairy calves from their mother in the period immediately after birth may have negative consequences for the health and welfare of cows and calves. Particularly, the socialization of calves may profit from staying with the dam, preferentially in a group [ 5 ]. Husbandry practices can have a tremendous effect on cattle provoking an increase in the prevalence of stress responses and physical injuries [ 8 ].
In fact, a positive attitude of the stockperson in handling and taking care of the animals seems to improve cattle welfare. The age of the farmers is also responsible for the less efficient management and consequently poor welfare of the animals. Not well-trained milkers may produce teats injuries that predispose to mastitis. Furthermore, the welfare of any animal clearly depends on the provision of sufficient food to supply principally energy Net Energy [NE] , proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins, which are essential for the functions of life maintenance, growth, activity, and reproduction.
Failure to provide sufficient NE and optimal amounts of specific nutrients can lead to severe loss of body condition, infertility, and severe metabolic disorders. Growing beef cattle, housed, yarded or on feedlots, and presented with high energy and low fiber rations ad libitum are at risk of digestive disorders Figure 3A.
The most common of these ones is subacute ruminal acidosis, which occurs when the fermentation rate and hence the volatile fatty acid production exceed the buffering capacity of the rumen, but it is possible to observe also fatty liver, ketosis, displaced abomasum, liver abscesses, and laminitis. Unnatural foraging regimes, possibly exacerbated by restrictive environments, are thought to elicit stereotypic oral behavior in cattle, such as tongue-rolling, object-licking, chain-chewing, or bar-biting [ 6 ].
A Beef cattle—abomasitis due to improper nutrition. B Beef cattle—heart. C Goat—udder. Traumatic teat injuries caused by milking. D Pig—lung. Pulmonary sequestration due to Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae infection.
E Pig—tail-biting lesions. F Pig—gastric ulcer due to improper nutrition. For all the reasons stated above, the authors hypothesize that the stress related to the intensive livestock farming could also represent a mechanotransduction-promoting factor of subclinical pathological changes such as coronary arteriosclerosis Figure 3B , which has been frequently reported at slaughterhouse in both calves and beef cattle [ 9 ]. Basically, the major farming systems of small ruminants are those based on pasture extensive-grazing , the indoor ones intensive-industrial , and the semi-intensive.
The negative impact of intensification of breeding systems can be observed at several levels and is very similar to what has been discussed above for the cattle. However, limited studies on the small ruminant welfare have been carried out, since they are considered very rustic animals able to cope with prohibitive environmental conditions and inadequate management practices, without harming their welfare and productive performances. This aspect has been overrated for many years considering that also in sheep and goats, stress can impair growth rate, wool growth, and feed conversion efficiency, also leading to the development of multi-factorial diseases such as mastitis, laminitis, and metabolic disorders, and increasing the frequency of abnormal behaviors aggressive behavior , stereotypies, and vocalizations [ 10 ].
The microclimate is fundamental in preventing respiratory diseases. Indeed, animals allocated in hot and dusty environments are more prone to develop bacterial or viral pneumonia.
Additional stressors could be found in the extensive systems, such as climatic extremes, that may evoke a decrease in feed intake efficiency and utilization, disturbances in water, protein, energy, and mineral balances, enzymatic reactions, hormonal secretions, and blood metabolites. The housing system is fundamental for small ruminant welfare too: only few animals are reared in extensive production systems in which animals are free to move and perform their physiological and behavioral functions; most of them are housed only during the night and in the periods when grazing is not feasible.
In any case, it is fundamental to understand that maintenance of good hygiene conditions, correct dimensioning of structural parameters, and adoption of proper management practices are important in either type of system. As seen above for cattle, human-animal interaction is a key factor also in the welfare of small ruminants too, and it is not unusual to find shepherds who have no specific skills or are not aware of the welfare standards of the animals [ 3 ].
An inadequate milking may produce teat injuries Figure 3C which is why specific training of farm crews should therefore be encouraged. Finally, an inadequate pasture in terms of quality and quantity can lead to nutritional unbalance with liver disease, enzootic ataxia, pregnancy toxemia, hypocalcaemia, diarrhea, and enterotoxaemia. Genetic selection in domestic pigs has been widely exploited in order to achieve specific phenotypic characteristics. Many pigs are raised in intensive conditions and thus strongly conditioned by the environment where they live.
Moreover, even free-ranging domestic pigs and wild boars may be strongly influenced by human activities. Several signs of suffering in swine have been described and they can be quantified using animal-based measures ABMs [ 11 , 12 ]. Microclimate heavily affects the stress conditions for pigs, particularly in intensive farming where different age groups require different microclimate standards air, temperature, and humidity.
Variations in temperature and humidity outside the thermal comfort result in abnormal behaviors. For example, distressed pigs show increased huddling due to excessive cold weather and panting due to excessive hot weather [ 11 ]. Proper management is the key to maintain suitable habitat conditions for both intensive and extensive pig farming. Housing systems affect both animal behavior and physical conditions. In the intensive farming, floor types e. In the extensive farming, pigs must always have access to proper shelters; otherwise, outbreaks of severe enteric and respiratory disorders will occur increasing also the mortality rating.
Appropriate structures and adequate space allowance for activities such as resting, feeding, and drinking are directly related to social behavior and interactions. Indeed, the environment in which pigs are confined influences the degree of social interactions. When a new group of pigs is formed, a stable social hierarchy is usually established in 1 or 2 days.
During this initial phase, negative interactions arise and their outcomes may be observed mainly as wounds on the body. Once the hierarchy is established, negative interactions drastically subside while positive interactions e. Nevertheless, rearing conditions typical of intensive housing systems can exacerbate inappropriate behaviors such as stereotypies e. Clear differences in the body condition scores of pigs of the same age are also a direct consequence of inadequate feeding.
Genetic selection has led to great production results improving parameters such as reproductive performances, meat production, daily weight gain, and feed conversion ratio. However, this intense selection has made pigs less able to adapt to certain environmental situations e.
Pigs are also selected to be more prolific but, without adequate assistance, there is a drastic increase of newborn piglet mortality. Finally, human influence on pig management has repercussions on infectious diseases, which negatively affect pig health, such as colibacillosis, polyserositis, enzootic pneumonia, post weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome, and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome.
Equine meat consumption depends on cultural and traditional customs. Considering the most important microclimate factors that negatively affect the equine habitat, insufficient ventilation and inadequate air quality may cause an increased exposure to gaseous ammonia and airborne dust that contain high levels of organic particulates including mite debris, microbes and vegetative material with varying content of endotoxins. The inhalant exposure to those irritant factors is implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory pulmonary disorders such as inflammatory airway diseases IAD and recurrent airway obstruction RAO [ 17 ].
Equines reared for meat production are housed in conditions that markedly differ from those in which they evolved. As a consequence, those animals attempt to adapt to the conditions in which they are kept performing functionless and repetitive activity known as stereotypic behaviors that include crib-biting, wind sucking, box walking, and weaving [ 18 ].
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